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| Diagnostic center [internet] 2020 Jul 04[cited 2021 May 15]Available from: https://www.diagnosticcentres.in/uploads/blogpost/can-you-boost-your-immune-system-to-prevent-coronavirus-spread-722x406.jpg |
With the current COVID-19 situation Immunity is a word that we always hear. Researchers are attempting to improve the immune system against COVID-19! (1)
What is this Immunity?
★ During the 10th century China, the healers use powders made from the crusty skin lesions of patients recovering from smallpox as an inhalant for children, which prevented the children from getting smallpox. (3)
★ In 1718 Lady Montague got to know about a practice that used in Ottoman empire, called variolation and inoculation and introduced it to Britain after having her own child treated.(4)
Cells associated with immune system
"The adaptive immune system is meant to attack non-self pathogens but can sometimes make errors and attack itself . When this happens Autoimmune diseases develop"(12)
References-Immunity And Immunology
Immunity stems from Latin- immunis= "exempt"
Immunity is the ability of protecting our body from foreign macromolecules or invading organisms and resisting them.
Immunology is the scientific study of immunity and it is a very important branch of medicine and Biology.
From what we need protection?
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| National Geographic [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/photos/170/119/0ccc612f-8d22-4acf-acda-80600b43009d.jpg |
Immunity Before Immunology(3)
It is the well known reality that we have known immunity long before the studying of immunity or immunology came under the light.
★ Around 430 B.C.: Peloponesian war, Thucydides describes plague- The ones who had recovered from the disease could nurse the sick without getting the disease for the second time.(2)
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| Gilchrist M, Why Thucydides Still Matters,[Internet] November 30, 2016[cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2016/11/30/why-thucydides-still-matters Thucydides (460 B.C.-360 B.C.) |
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| Sweerts M, Plague in an Ancient City, c. 1652–1654[cited 2021 May 15]Available from: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31770455-O3.jpg Plague of Athens |
★ During the 10th century China, the healers use powders made from the crusty skin lesions of patients recovering from smallpox as an inhalant for children, which prevented the children from getting smallpox. (3)
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| London : Burroughs, Wellcome, [1913][cited 2021 May 15] Full Bibliographic Record: http://catalogue.wellcomelibrary.org/record=b1293746 Figures showing vaccination pustules From Chinese work on vaccination |
★ In 1718 Lady Montague got to know about a practice that used in Ottoman empire, called variolation and inoculation and introduced it to Britain after having her own child treated.(4)
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| [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/537335799260325650/ Lady Montagu |
★ Edward Jenner (1749-1823) is often known as "the father of immunization" for producing the world first vaccine which was against the smallpox. (4)
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| Donnert K, [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://codepen.io/klaus-donnert/full/NjMwWd |
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| Hamman, E. J. C. Paris [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/b7d6yvdr In 1789 Edward Jenner inoculated a boy using pus from arm of a milkmaid who was suffering from cowpox and then inoculated the same boy with Smallpox. He found that the boy didn't develop the smallpox disease |
" The word Vaccine came from Latin word Vacca meaning Cow"(4)
★ In the year 1879 Louis Pasteur discovered by accident that aged bacterial cultures of Pasteurella has lost its virulence. Then he introduced the weakened culture vaccines and named them 'Vaccine" in honor of Jenner. He applied the same technique to make vaccines for rabies and Anthrax as well. (5)
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| National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland[cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Pasteur/Vaccine-development French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur experimenting on a chloroformed rabbit |
★In the year 1845 Elias Metchnikoff’s identified phagocytic cells that can engulf and destroy pathogens that enters the body. His work prefigures much of contemporary research in innate immunity.(6)
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| THE NOBEL PRIZE [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1908/mechnikov/biographical/ Elias Metchnikoff |
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| Metchnikoff E- 1901 - Masson,L'immunité dans les maladies infectieuses [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://jlb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1189/jlb.0211094 Drawings of phagocyting leukocytes |
★Then in the year 1854 Emil Behring and Paul Ehrlich identified antibodies that have the ability to neutralize microbial toxins (Bracha & Tan 2011, p 1) which then became the basis of acquired immunity. (7)
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| Photo by Keystone 1910 [cited 2021 May 15] Available from: https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/portrait-of-german-scientists-paul-ehrlich-and-emil-von-news-photo/551445191 Emil Behring and Paul Ehrlich |
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| Paul Ehrlich and his drawings of the formation and effector functions of antibodies according to the side-chain theory Kaufmann S,Nature Immunology 2008 [cited 2021 May 16] Available from: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Immunology's-foundation%3A-the-100-year-anniversary-Kaufmann/02fb2fc94b7fa37fdebf830a3f6c5adf2afd6554 |
The Immune system
Parts of Immune system
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Major Immune components of the lymphatic system [cited 2021 May 16] Available from: https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/immunology/the-lymphatic-system-3-its-role-in-the-immune-system-30-11 |
The tasks of the Immune system(8)
- To fight disease-causing germs (pathogens) like bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi, and to remove them from the body,
- To recognize and neutralize harmful substances from the environment
- To fight disease-causing changes in the body, such as cancer cells.
How does Immune system works?
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| Types of immunity [cited 2021 May 16] Available from: https://immunity2014lauraashcroft.weebly.com/uploads/8/3/7/0/8370492/1440739_orig.jpg |
Cells associated with immune system
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| Dougherty J. Immune system [cited 2021 May 16] Available from: https://www.pinterest.com/jdougherty721/immune-system/ |
Innate Immunity
Innate immunity system is defined as the first line of defense against pathogen. It relies on recognizing certain foreign molecules to stimulate the innate immune responses; inflammatory responses and phagocytosis (9)
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| Electron Microscope showing Macrophages in ACTION! [cited 2021 May 17] Available from: https://media.giphy.com/media/a0tSLcDNUWVfG/giphy.gif |
How does a basic inflammatory response works?
Norton WW. The Basic Inflammatory Response, Microbiology: An Evolving Science 3rd edition Jul 7, 2017 [cited 2021 May 17] Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVCXRa8FdP0
⭐In 1989, Charles Janeway Jr. proposed the existence of a collection of receptors expressed by innate immune cells responsible for detecting conserved products of microbial origin.(13)
They are also known as primitive pattern recognition receptors which are of three types.
Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) are proteins capable of recognizing molecules frequently found in pathogens (the so-called Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns—PAMPs), or molecules released by damaged cells (the Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns—DAMPs).(13)
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| Bocanegra V, Danger and stranger models. [Internet] ResearchGate [Cited 2021 May 20] Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Danger-and-stranger-models-Notes-A-Infections-of-pathogenic-bacteria-or-viruses-cause_fig2_263475706 |
[Cited 2021 May 20] Available from: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Innate-and-Adaptive-Immunity_20174/
Acquired Immunity
The adaptive immune system or acquired immunity system that only found in vertebrates. It is not present at birth and acquired during the life time. And its immune response is specific to the pathogen present.
This system have specialized systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. (10)
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| Applegate EJ, Examples of the four combinations of active/passive immunity and natural/artificial immunity, The anatomy and physiology learning system, ed 3, St Louis, 2006, Saunders. [cited 2021 May 17] Available from:https://nursekey.com/7-immunology/ Examples of the four combinations of active/passive immunity and natural/artificial immunity |
"Antibody also known as Immunoglobulin is Y shaped large protein that is used to identify and neutralize foreign objects. Antibody identify a unique molecule of the pathogen known as Antigen" (11)
How does Acquired immunity response works?
Homoeo Times Channel, The Immune Response HD Animation Nov 26, 2016 [cited 2021 May 17] Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AucZlvEv29Y
The responses of the Adaptive immunity comes under two parts
- Humoral Immune Response (Extracellular Spaces)
- Cell Mediated Immune Response (Intracellular Spaces)
Humoral Immune Response
The extracellular spaces are protected by the humoral immune response, in which antibodies produced by B cells cause the destruction of extracellular microorganisms and prevent the spread of intracellular infections.(14)
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| Herlihy M, B-cell activation and humoral (antibody) immunity. The three-step process results in the production of antibodies by the plasma cells, The human body in health and illness, ed 3, St Louis, 2006, Saunders [cited 2021 May 17] Available from:https://nursekey.com/7-immunology/ B-cell activation and humoral (antibody) immunity. The three-step process results in the production of antibodies by the plasma cells |
Cell Mediate Immune Response
Cell-mediated immunity is directed primarily at microbes that survive in phagocytes as well as those that infect non-phagocytic cells.
This type of immunity is most effective in eliminating virus-infected cells and cancer cells, but can also participate in defending against fungi, protozoa, cancers, and intracellular bacteria. (15)
Cell-mediated immunity does not involve antibodies, but rather protects an organism through:
- The activation of antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that induce apoptosis of cells displaying foreign antigens or derived peptides on their surface, such as virus-infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells displaying tumor antigens;
- The activation of macrophages and NK cells, enabling them to destroy intracellular pathogens; and
- The stimulation of cytokine (such as IFNγ) production that further mediates the effective immune response. (15)
"Cell-mediated immunity also plays a major role in transplant rejection"(15)
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| Herlihy M, T-cell activation and cell-mediated immunity. The three-step process results in four subsets of T cells, The human body in health and illness, ed 3, St Louis, 2006, Saunders [cited 2021 May 17] Available from:https://nursekey.com/7-immunology/ T-cell activation and cell-mediated immunity. The three-step process results in four subsets of T cells |
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1. 1.Chowdhury MA, Hossain N, Kashem MA, Shahid MA, Alam A. Immune response in COVID-19: A review. J Infect Public Health [Internet]. 2020;[cited 2021 May 19], vol. 13 issue (11): pp 1619-29. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.001
2. Garg N, Abdel-Aziz SM, Aeron A, Springer Microbes in Food and Health [Internet] Switzerland: Springer; 2016 [cited 2021 May 19] Available from; https://books.google.lk/books?id=odb7CwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. Mukherjee S. Before Virus, After Virus: A Reckoning. Cell.[Internet] 2020 Oct 15;[cited 2021 May 17] vol.183,issue(2): pp 308-314. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.042. PMID: 33064987; PMCID: PMC7560376.
4. Riedel S, “Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination.” Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center) [Internet], 2005 [cited 2021 May 17]vol. 18, issue 1: pp 21-5. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028
5. Berche P, "Louis Pasteur, from crystals of life to vaccination", Clinical Microbiology and Infection [Internet],2012,[cited 2021 May 18] Volume 18, Supplement 5, Pages 1-6 ISSN 1198-743X,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03945.x.
6. Gordon, S. ‘Elie Metchnikoff: father of natural immunity’, European Journal of Immunology [Internet], 2008 Dec, [cited 2021 May 18] vol 38, no. (12), pp 3257-3264. doi: 10.1002/eji.200838855. PMID: 19039772.
7. Bracha, A. Tan, S.Y. ‘Emil von Behring (1854-1917): Medicine's first Nobel laureate’, Singapore Medical Journal [Internet], 2011 Jan, [cited 2021 May 18] vol 52, no. (1), pp 1-2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21298232/ PMID: 21298232
8.InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. How does the immune system work? [Updated 2020 Apr 23]. [cited 2021 May 18] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279364/
9. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell [internet]. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Innate Immunity.[cited 2021 May 18] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26846/
10.Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell [Internet]. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Chapter 24, The Adaptive Immune System. [cited 2021 May 18] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21070
11. Hoffman W, Lakkis FG, Chalasani G. B Cells, Antibodies, and More. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol[Internet]. 2016 Jan 7[cited 2021 May 19]; vol. 11 issue(1): pp 137-54. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09430915. Epub 2015 Dec 23. PMID: 26700440; PMCID: PMC4702236.
12.Smith DA, Germolec DR. Introduction to immunology and autoimmunity . Environ Health Perspect [Internet]. 1999;[cited 2021 May 18] vol. 107 (Suppl 5): pp 661-665. doi:10.1289/ehp.99107s5661
13. Mendes P, Sandy A, Migliari L, Larissa C, Ricardo W, Karina R, Pattern Recognition Receptors and the Host Cell Death Molecular Machinery. Frontiers in Immunology [Internet] 2018 [cited 2021 May 20] vol 9: pp 2379 DOI=10.3389/fimmu.2018.02379
14. Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition. New York: Garland Science ; Chapter 9, The Humoral Immune Response [Internet].2001 [Cited 2021 May 20] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10752/
15. Marshall JS, Warrington R, Watson W, Kim HL. An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol [Internet]. 2018; [Cited 2021 May 20] vol 14 (Suppl 2): pp 49. doi:10.1186/s13223-018-0278-1
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